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  <head>
    <title>105-01 Amount, concentration, stoichiometry, and experimental yield</title>
    <ownerName>Integrated Medical Foundations</ownerName>
  </head>
  <body>
    <outline text="Amount, concentration, stoichiometry, yield">
      <outline text="Three separate quantities">
        <outline text="How much substance exists"/>
        <outline text="How much space its solution occupies"/>
        <outline text="How much substance reacts"/>
        <outline text="Concentration can fall while amount is unchanged"/>
        <outline text="Balanced equation limits conversion, not speed or recovery"/>
      </outline>
      <outline text="From mass to amount">
        <outline text="Mole counts specified entities">
          <outline text="Exactly 6.02214076 x 10^23 entities"/>
        </outline>
        <outline text="Calcium chloride: one formula unit mole">
          <outline text="One mole calcium, two moles chlorine atoms"/>
          <outline text="Dissolves to calcium ions and chloride ions"/>
          <outline text="Not three moles of calcium chloride"/>
        </outline>
        <outline text="Molar mass converts grams to moles">
          <outline text="3.60 g at 120 g/mol is 30.0 mmol"/>
          <outline text="Millimole is a thousandth of a mole"/>
        </outline>
        <outline text="Equal masses usually differ in entity number"/>
        <outline text="Empirical versus molecular formula">
          <outline text="Empirical: simplest whole-number ratio"/>
          <outline text="Molecular: actual composition of a molecule"/>
          <outline text="CH2O at 30 and measured 180 gives multiplier six"/>
          <outline text="Ratio alone cannot identify the compound"/>
        </outline>
      </outline>
      <outline text="Concentration and dilution">
        <outline text="Molarity per litre of final solution">
          <outline text="Not per litre of added solvent"/>
        </outline>
        <outline text="Aliquot diluted to a final volume">
          <outline text="15.0 mL transfers 3.00 mmol"/>
          <outline text="Made up to 100 mL gives 0.0300 M"/>
          <outline text="Adding 100 mL is a different operation"/>
        </outline>
        <outline text="C1V1 = C2V2 conserves the chosen solute">
          <outline text="Assumes no loss, generation, or consumption"/>
          <outline text="Reacting mixtures need a reaction calculation"/>
        </outline>
        <outline text="Mixing same nonreacting solute">
          <outline text="Add amounts, divide by combined volume"/>
          <outline text="Plain average only for equal volumes"/>
        </outline>
        <outline text="Successive dilution factors multiply"/>
      </outline>
      <outline text="Concentration units">
        <outline text="Mass percent: solute mass over solution mass"/>
        <outline text="Mass per volume percent: g per 100 mL">
          <outline text="2% w/v is 20 g/L or 20 mg/mL"/>
        </outline>
        <outline text="Molality: moles per kilogram of solvent">
          <outline text="Linking to volume needs density and composition"/>
        </outline>
        <outline text="Density links mass and volume">
          <outline text="10.0% by mass at 1.20 g/mL"/>
          <outline text="100 mL weighs 120 g, holds 12.0 g solute"/>
          <outline text="At 60.0 g/mol gives 2.00 M"/>
          <outline text="Needs both density and molar mass"/>
        </outline>
      </outline>
      <outline text="Balancing before calculating">
        <outline text="Conserve elements and ionic charge"/>
        <outline text="Change coefficients, never subscripts">
          <outline text="Subscripts identify the substance"/>
          <outline text="Coefficients specify how much participates"/>
        </outline>
        <outline text="Ethanol combustion ratio 1:3:2:3">
          <outline text="Coefficients are mole ratios, not gram ratios"/>
        </outline>
      </outline>
      <outline text="Limiting reactant and mass check">
        <outline text="0.080 mol ethanol with 0.180 mol oxygen">
          <outline text="Oxygen supports only 0.060 mol, so it limits"/>
        </outline>
        <outline text="0.120 mol CO2, 0.180 water, 0.020 ethanol left"/>
        <outline text="Raw mole comparison misleads when ratio is not 1:1"/>
        <outline text="Mass check: 9.44 g in, 9.44 g out">
          <outline text="Catches an omitted excess reactant"/>
          <outline text="Open vessel may lose gas without violating conservation"/>
        </outline>
      </outline>
      <outline text="Predicted conversion versus recovery">
        <outline text="Theoretical yield from reaction and limiting input"/>
        <outline text="Actual yield reflects further factors">
          <outline text="Conversion and competing reactions"/>
          <outline text="Collection losses and measurement quality"/>
        </outline>
        <outline text="4.22 g of 5.28 g is about 79.9%">
          <outline text="Percentage does not identify the cause"/>
        </outline>
        <outline text="Yield above maximum signals a problem">
          <outline text="Wet product, impurity, wrong concentration or identity"/>
          <outline text="Not evidence that atoms were created"/>
        </outline>
        <outline text="Extra excess reactant does not raise the ceiling">
          <outline text="May still alter rate or equilibrium"/>
        </outline>
      </outline>
      <outline text="Precision and accuracy">
        <outline text="Close agreement can share a systematic bias"/>
        <outline text="Replication characterises variability only"/>
        <outline text="Uncertainty in both numerator and denominator"/>
      </outline>
      <outline text="Species, particles, and reporting">
        <outline text="Analytical concentration versus species concentrations"/>
        <outline text="0.050 M CaCl2 gives 0.050 M Ca and 0.100 M Cl">
          <outline text="Ideal 0.150 osmol/L of particles"/>
          <outline text="Approximation, not measured osmolarity"/>
        </outline>
        <outline text="Charge equivalents: two per mole of calcium"/>
        <outline text="Exact coefficients do not limit significant figures"/>
        <outline text="Keep extra digits, round the final result"/>
        <outline text="Final checks before accepting an answer">
          <outline text="Does the unit name the requested quantity"/>
          <outline text="Did dilution change amount or concentration"/>
          <outline text="Theoretical maximum or observation"/>
        </outline>
      </outline>
    </outline>
  </body>
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